Teacher Self-Efficacy and Learner Assessment: A Perspective from Literature on South African Indigenous Languages in the Foundation Phase

Studies have shown that self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to complete a task or achieve a goal, and that this belief can have a significant impact on teaching methods and learning outcomes. Yet, in the context of South Africa, despite the promotion of indigenous languages in Foundation Phase (FP) classrooms, learners continue to struggle on account of low teacher self-efficacy. Underpinned by Bandura’s social cognitive theory, this study used a literature review methodology to explore the self-efficacy-related challenges confronting FP teachers in assessing learners using their indigenous languages. The study also examined the strategies that can used to enhance teachers’ self -efficacy. The findings revealed that factors, such as inadequate teacher training, learner mobility


INTRODUCTION
Self-efficacy in teaching refers to the teachers' belief in their ability to successfully carry out the tasks and responsibilities of teaching (Hayat et al., 2020;Jassim, 2020;Mosoge et al., 2018).It is the confidence teachers have in their ability to create effective learning environments, teach learners in ways that meet their needs and learning styles, and manage their classrooms effectively (Fathi et al., 2021;Mokone & Setlalentoa, 2023;Wray et al., 2022).Self-efficacy in teaching is an important aspect of teachers' effectiveness, as teachers with higher levels of selfefficacy are more likely to use effective teaching practices, which have a positive impact on their learners' learning outcomes (Asare & Amo, 2023;Wray et al., 2022).Teachers with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to set challenging goals for their learners, persevere in the face of difficulty, and find innovative solutions to problems (Fathi et al., 2021;Hayat et al., 2020).They also tend to have more positive attitudes towards their learners and their own teaching skills, which can create a positive learning environment and increase the learners' motivation and engagement (Asare & Amo, 2023;Juan et al., 2018).
In the context of South Africa, indigenous languages more recently have taken the centre stage in debates around self-efficacy.There is also a growing emphasis on teachers' ability to communicate effectively in the mother tongue of the diverse groups of learners (Makhalemele & Payne-van Staden, 2017;Mosoge et al., 2018).According to researchers, teachers who have higher levels of self-efficacy tend to evaluate their learners and their acquired level of learning more accurately (du Preez, 2018;Poulou et al., 2019).This can be linked to the fact that educators with higher levels of self-efficacy are sure of their own capability to evaluate their learners' learning effectively and are able to offer insightful feedback (Majhalemele & Paynevan Staden, 2018;Mlambo et al., 2020).Additionally, it has been noted that teachers with high levels of self-efficacy are more likely to employ a variety of assessment methods and strategies, such as formative and summative evaluation, which are more efficient at revealing learners' strengths and deficiencies (Hayat et al., 2020;Mosoge et al., 2018;Poulou et al., 2019).Conversely, instructors with low self-efficacy may struggle with the implementation of the appropriate evaluation and are more inclined to rely on conventional, one-size-fits-all evaluation techniques that might not be appropriate for all learners (Asare & Amo, 2023;Majhalemele & Payne-van Staden, 2018;Poulou et al., 2019).Additionally, they can lack the confidence to analyse and use assessment data according to their instruction, which might limit their capacity to enhance the learners' learning outcomes (Berg & Smith, 2018;Mlambo et al., 2020).
Against this background, the present study aimed to investigate the self-efficacy challenges faced by South African Foundation Phase (FP) teachers in their assessment practices and identify strategies that can enhance their level of self-efficacy.By understanding the specific challenges and barriers faced by FP teachers, the research aimed to provide insights into improving assessment practices, teachers' effectiveness, and the educational equity in South Africa, ultimately leading to an enhanced quality of education for all learners.
To explore the influence of teachers' level of self-efficacy on their assessment practices used in the Foundation Phase education in South Africa, this study sought to answer the following questions: • What self-efficacy challenges affect South African FP teachers' assessment practices?
• What strategies can be implemented to enhance South African FP teachers' self-efficacy?

Sources of teachers' level of self-efficacy: A Social Cognitive Theory argument
The study was underpinned by Bandura's (1997) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT).According to the SCT, there are four main sources of teachers' level of self-efficacy, namely enactive mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological and affective states (Bandura, 1997).Below, we present a cursory discussion of these sources of self-efficacy.

Enactive mastery experiences
According to Bandura (1997), enactive mastery experiences are the most influential source of self-efficacy because they provide the most authentic evidence of whether or not one can master all one needs to succeed.Essentially, Bandura (1997) argued that success strengthens one's belief in one's sense of self-efficacy, while failure undermines it, especially if failures occur before the sense of self-efficacy is firmly established.With regard to teachers' level of selfefficacy, successes in the classroom can boost the teachers' self-efficacy beliefs and increase their confidence in their ability to teach effectively (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2007).

Vicarious experiences
The second source of self-efficacy identified by the SCT is vicarious experiences.Vicarious experiences refer to observing others who are successful in performing a particular task or activity (Bandura, 1997).When teachers observe other teachers who are depicting successful approaches to teaching similar topics or skills, it can reinforce their own self-efficacy beliefs and provide them with models to emulate (Woolfolk Hoy & Burke Spero, 2005).The SCT assumes that the experience of teachers seeing others succeed can strengthen their own self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997).However, such observations could also lead to a lower self-efficacy belief and self-doubt, if the observing teachers do not believe that they can emulate the other teacher's teaching style.Bandura (1997) also added that social persuasion is another important source of teachers' selfefficacy.Social persuasion refers to the positive feedback, encouragement, and support that teachers receive from others, such as colleagues, supervisors, and even students or learners (Gibson & Dembo, 1984;Goddard, Hoy, & Hoy, 2000).Social persuasion can help teachers develop and maintain high levels of self-efficacy by providing them with external validation of their abilities and thereby increasing the confidence in their own teaching style's effectiveness (Bandura, 1997;Henson, Kogan, & Vacha-Haase, 2001).

Physiological and affective states
The final source of self-efficacy identified in the SCT refers to the physiological and affective states.Bandura (1997) believed that when teachers experience positive emotions and conducive physiological states, such as feeling energised and confident, they are also more likely to believe in their ability to succeed in anything they undertake.In contrast, negative emotions, and detrimental physiological states, such as anxiety or exhaustion, can undermine a person's level of self-efficacy by creating doubts about one's ability to perform well or succeed in tasks that have to be achieved (Caprara et al., 2006;Frenzel et al., 2021).Therefore, teachers need to manage their physical and emotional well-being to be able to maintain a positive frame of mind and a sense of self-efficacy.Strategies such as physical exercise, mindfulness, and attempts at stress reduction can help teachers maintain a positive physiological and affective state, which in turn, can enhance their self-efficacy beliefs (Ripski et al., 2011).

METHODOLOGY
A literature review methodology was employed in this study to review and synthesise published peer-reviewed findings from books and journal articles (Arksey & O'Malley, 2005;Snyder, 2019).As stated by Khan et al. (2003), the researchers first established the research question and the parameters of the study before conducting this review.In this instance, the researchers investigated the connection between learners' assessment at FP in South Africa's indigenous languages and teachers' level of self-efficacy.The second phase involved locating pertinent information sources and gathering data by using effective search techniques (Gough et al., 2012;Grant & Booth, 2009).For this study, the researchers used the key terms "assessment", "foundation phase", "indigenous languages", "learners", and "self-efficacy" to search Google Scholar papers, focusing only on the most recent South Africa-based studies published between 2017 and 2023.The researchers then evaluated the quality, relevance and reliability of the data collected, being careful to eliminate works from well-known predatory publishers.The researchers only considered studies that had been well-designed and conducted, and used the appropriate methodology.The relevance of the data was assessed by the studies' capacity to address the central goals of the current study.On the other hand, reliability was upheld by considering how well the findings corroborated those of other studies.In total, 50 of the articles collected by the researchers were used in this study.The researchers started the analysis process by organising and summarising the data, looking for patterns and trends, and making inferences based on the present findings, as recommended by Khan et al. (2023).Table 1 shows how the literature used in this investigation was distributed.Table 1.

Presentation of the literature used in this study (See Appendix A)
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Self-efficacy challenges and FP assessment in South Africa FP teachers in South Africa face several self-efficacy-related challenges when assessing home languages.Some of these challenges discussed in this section include the lack of teachers' relevant training, multilingualism, resource constraints, and teachers' biases, among other factors that are discussed in the following sections.

Inadequacies in teachers' training
Studies have revealed that the lack of teachers' training of how to address the issue of the wide range of learners' home languages can significantly affect the assessment of indigenous languages in the FP in South African schools (Coetzee-Van Rooy, 2018;Mtshali & Mashiyi, 2022;Palmer et al., 2019).In some instances, it is argued that because indigenous languages are often not widely appreciated, and teachers may not have a strong understanding of the language or its cultural context, it is sometimes challenging for them to accurately assess the language abilities of their learners, especially so when it comes to writing and reading (Cekiso et al., 2019;Mtshali & Mashiya, 2022).This can lead to a reliance on standardised tests that may not account for the unique features of indigenous languages or the specific context in which they are spoken.For example, a test designed for English speakers may not be appropriate for assessing a learner's proficiency in isiXhosa (Kepe & Linake, 2019;Majola & Cekiso, 2023;Mashige et al., 2019;Palmer et al., 2019).Moreover, deficient teacher training can lead to biased assessments, which in turn, can result in unequal treatment of learners (Dube, 2020;Olawale et al., 2022;Schoeman et al., 2023).Multilingualism Multilingualism can also have a complex impact on the assessment of indigenous languages in the FP.On the one hand, advocates of multilingualism argue that learners who are exposed to multiple languages from an early age may have a better understanding of language structures and be able to transfer their skills across languages (Adesope et al., 2010;Gizatullina & Sibgatullina, 2018;Mtshali & Mashiyi, 2022;Watermeyer, 2020).On the other hand, dissenting voices argue that multilingualism can also make it difficult to accurately assess the learners' abilities, as teachers may not know which language the learner is most proficient in (Kroll & Dussias, 2017;Pontier et al., 2020;Tönsing et al., 2019).In some instances, FP learners who are exposed to multiple languages might have an incomplete understanding of each language, leading to a misinterpretation of their abilities (Heugh et al., 2021;Khanyile & Awung, 2023;Schoeman et al., 2023).In addition, multilingualism has also been criticised for the lack of emphasis on indigenous languages in the classroom, with English being prioritised over other languages, including indigenous languages (Cekiso, 2019;Meda, 2020;Motala et al., 2021).

Resource constraints
Resource inadequacies may also have a significant impact on the assessment of indigenous languages in the FP in South Africa.A major challenge within the South African context is the lack of appropriate assessment tools and materials in indigenous languages (Cele, 2019;Majola & Madoda, 2023;Tsebe, 2021).An argument has been made that many schools in South Africa lack resources such as textbooks, learning materials, and assessment tools in the indigenous languages taught in the FP, making it difficult for teachers to adequately assess their learners' language proficiency (Mohlabane, 2021;Ngema, 2021).In addition, the prevailing shortage of qualified teachers who are proficient in indigenous languages means that some teachers may lack the necessary language skills to accurately assess learners' language development (Romski et al., 2018;Wildsmith-Cromarty et al., 2022).This can result in inaccurate assessments and therefore, this can have negative consequences for learning outcomes (Lekhu, 2023).Moreover, resource inadequacies also affect the allocation of instructional time being allocated to indigenous language instruction, as teachers may prioritise other subjects because of a lack of materials and support for indigenous language instruction (Nkosi, 2020;Tsebe, 2021).Thus, it is not surprising that in such circumstances, indigenous language instruction and assessment may be marginalised and not given sufficient attention, which can further exacerbate the inequalities that already exist in South Africa's education system (Mavuru & Ramnarain, 2020;Tsebe, 2021).

Teachers' biases
Teachers' biases (such as their own language backgrounds, experiences, and cultural values) can result in inaccurate assessments of learners' language proficiency, which can have negative consequences for their learning outcomes (Charamba, 2021;Mweli, 2018).It is argued that teachers who are not proficient in indigenous languages may have lower expectations of their learners' language abilities, which can result in teachers then subconsciously starting to undermine these learners' language skills (Heugh et al., 2021;Wills & Hofmeyr, 2019).Additionally, teachers who hold negative attitudes towards indigenous languages or cultures may consciously or unconsciously discriminate against learners who speak these languages, leading to unfair assessments (Mahabeer, 2020;Mnguni & Tshotsho, 2017;Salie et al., 2020).This can potentially engender learners' marginalisation for learners who already battle social and economic challenges in South Africa.A lack of adequate teacher training on cultural and linguistic diversity can limit teachers' understanding of the importance of incorporating indigenous languages into their teaching and assessment practices (Charamba, 2021;Mohlabane, 2021;Salie et al., 2020).Therefore, teachers need to be trained and supported to help them recognise and overcome their latent biases, and ensure that their assessment practices are fair and equitable for all learners.

Learner mobility
Finally, it has also been argued that the movement of learners across schools or regions can have a significant impact on indigenous language assessment in the FP.Learners who move to new schools may have a different proficiency level than their peers in their home language, which can make it difficult for teachers to assess their language abilities accurately (Cekiso et al., 2019;Mohohlwane, 2019).Additionally, if the language of instruction at the new school is different from the learners' home language, it can be challenging for the learners to adjust to the new language and keep up with their peers (Mlambo et al., 2020;Spaull, 2016).This can exasperate learners and diminish their confidence in their ability to learn, which can further affect their language development and assessment.Learners who move frequently may also have gaps in their education, which can affect their ability to acquire new knowledge and skills, including language proficiency (Hanna, 2022;Neluvhola et al., 2022).This is compounded in instances, where there is low teacher turnover, no further training of teachers, and a lack of continuity in language instruction (Cekiso et al., 2019;Charamba, 2023).

Strategies for enhancing teachers' self-efficacy in indigenous languages
The following sub-headings discuss the literature findings on how teachers' level of self-efficacy can be improved.As already discussed in the methodology section, this study primarily focused on literature published between 2017 and 2023.

Making use of modelling techniques
One of Bandura's (1997) main arguments in the SCT was that teachers observing other teachers successfully teaching similar topics or skills can strengthen their own self-efficacy beliefs and provide them with models they can emulate.Studies have shown that new teachers benefit immensely from observing their more experienced colleagues teaching successfully (Downes et al., 2021;Fathi et al., 2021;McGrath et al., 2020).Role models exemplify specific goals, behaviours, and strategies that role aspirants (people who are exposed to role models and consciously or even unconsciously follow in their footsteps) internalise and imitate (Ahn et al., 2020;Kundu, 2020).In South Africa, modelling is complicated by the shortage of teachers and infrastructural inadequacies, as well as overcrowding of classrooms, thus making it difficult to mentor junior teachers (Baloyi, 2022;Meier & West, 2020).However, teachers can improve their self-efficacy by observing and learning from mentors who demonstrate effective teaching techniques, classroom management strategies, and other skills necessary for success in the teaching profession (Robinson & Rusznyak, 2020;Thornton et al., 2020).Improving working conditions Bandura (1997) argued that self-efficacy beliefs are a key attribute of human agency that determine how individuals cope with challenges and failures.Studies have also shown that teaching is a stressful profession, with aspects such as time, discipline, learners' motivation, diversity, administration, and relationships with colleagues having to be managed (Thaba-Nkadimene, 2020;Toropova et al., 2021).It has been argued that teachers' self-efficacy beliefs can help mitigate the effects of stressful working conditions on their level of job satisfaction and that these beliefs are associated with lower turnover intentions (Bloemeke et al., 2017;Darling-Hammond et al., 2020).One may have to consider the debilitating working conditions in rural South African schools, where there are reports of violence, multi-grade teaching, and a lack of the necessary physical or financial resources, and the basic infrastructure for sanitation (Dube, 2020;du Plessis & Mestry, 2019;Makhasane, 2023).One needs to reflect on the perspective offered by Zeichner (2014), who argued that teachers' level of self-efficacy moderates the effects of stress on their professional engagement and that it can help teachers see challenges as opportunities to overcome adversity and grow.Improving working conditions in schools is important not only for the teachers' motivation and job satisfaction, but also for the learners' learning opportunities (Aloe et al., 2014;Frenzel et al., 2021).This was further demonstrated by Shaukat et al. (2019), who states that positive relationships between learners' discipline, teachers' collaboration, and teachers' job satisfaction were consistent across diverse contexts.

Remuneration
Studies have also demonstrated that improved remuneration can enhance teachers' level of self-efficacy by providing a monetary recognition of the value of their work, reducing financial stress, improving motivation, and offering opportunities for professional development (Liu et al., 2018;Song et al., 2020;Toropova et al., 2021).It is argued that fair and competitive remuneration can increase teachers' sense of self-worth and confidence in their abilities (Dexter & Wall, 2021;Kasalak & Dagyar, 2020).There is evidence to suggest that financial stability can allow teachers to focus on their work and feel more in control of their personal and professional responsibilities (Gunn & McRae, 2021;Liu et al., 2018;Yada et al., 2022).Yet, in Africa, caused by comparably lower remuneration, experienced and newly-minted teachers are inclined to leave the teaching profession at an early stage, seeking better career opportunities and better compensation (de Jager et al., 2017;Mlambo & Adetiba, 2019;Spaull et al., 2020).Remuneration that reflects the teachers' skills and experience can motivate them to improve their teaching practice, and this will have a positive impact on learners' learning outcomes (Banerjee et al., 2017;Song et al., 2020).Additionally, professional development opportunities made possible by a good salary can help teachers acquire new skills and knowledge, which can increase their self-efficacy and confidence (Okeke & Nyanhoto, 2021;Yada et al., 2022).

Continuous professional development
The continuous professional development of in-service teachers can also help to enhance teachers' self-efficacy in a number of ways.Researchers reveal that continuous professional development provides teachers with opportunities to acquire new skills and knowledge, which can increase their sense of self-efficacy and confidence in their ability to teach effectively (Bantwini, 2019;du Plessis & Mestry, 2019;Rogers et al., 2023).In terms of the mastery experiences that Bandura (1997) argued for in the SCT, professional development opportunities offer teachers opportunities to practise and apply new skills and knowledge in a supportive and safe environment (Olawale et al., 2022;Themane & Thobejane, 2019;Zuze & Juan, 2020).This means that success in professional development courses can provide teachers with a sense of mastery and accomplishment, which can increase their sense of self-efficacy and confidence.Yet, in the context of South Africa, a host of factors such as the lack of funding, time constraints, access barriers, and a lack of motivation constrain teachers' engagement in professional development courses (Bantwini, 2019;Zuze & Juan, 2020).It has also been demonstrated that teachers who embark on professional development courses have increased their sense of selfefficacy and confidence because these courses provide teachers with feedback and concomitant feedback regarding their accomplishments (Majhalemele & Payne-van Staden, 2018;Ndabankulu et al., 2022).Furthermore, observing others succeed can also increase these teachers' confidence in their ability to achieve similar success, and help reduce anxiety about new teaching practices and approaches by providing them with knowledge and skills to successfully implement them (Bantwini, 2019;du Plessis & Mestry, 2019).

Fostering facilitative leadership styles
Finally, proponents of facilitative leadership also argue that this type of leadership enhances self-efficacy by creating a conducive and healthy work environment that promotes collaboration, innovation, and creativity (Firmansyah et al., 2022;Tsakeni & Jita, 2019).Researchers also argue that this type of leadership involves providing support, guidance, and resources to help individuals achieve their goals and reach their full potential (Makgato & Mudzanani, 2019;Zuze & Juan, 2020).However, in the South African context, there are reports of authoritarian principals leading schools in a manner that discourages teachers' input.This is often owing to the principals' lack of training, a legacy of apartheid, and competitive pressure to improve academic performances, among other factors (Mncube & Mafora, 2017;Nkambule, 2022;Olawale et al., 2022).It places a noteworthy emphasis on the importance of factors such as communication, feedback, and recognition.Studies have shown that facilitative leadership is positively associated with teachers' psychological capital and job satisfaction, suggesting that it can enhance teachers' level of self-efficacy (Bantwini, 2019;Klassen, 2010;Tsakeni & Jita, 2019;Zuze & Juan, 2020).Facilitative leaders are said to create opportunities for teachers to engage in professional development, share ideas and knowledge, and participate in decision-making processes, which can enhance their sense of competence and confidence (Asare & Amo, 2023;Klein et al., 2018;Nkambule, 2022).This leadership style encourages a sense of mutual trust and respect between the leaders and their followers, which can lead to greater job satisfaction and commitment (Firmansyah et al., 2022;Tsakeni & Jita, 2019;Zuze & Juan, 2020).

Conclusion: The way ahead for South African schools
Improving teachers' sense of self-efficacy and learners' assessment in indigenous languages requires a multifaceted approach that considers the unique cultural and linguistic circumstances of the communities in question.Teachers will require targeted training and support to be able to effectively teach learners in indigenous languages.This means that professional development opportunities should be tailored to meet the teachers' specific needs and should be culturally sensitive and linguistically appropriate.This may take the form of periodic workshops on language instruction methods, language acquisition theory, and culturally responsive pedagogy.In addition, we recommend that assessment instruments should be designed to align with the learners' linguistic and cultural backgrounds.This might involve incorporating culturally relevant materials into the assessment tasks, such as traditional stories or songs.We are of the view that assessments should be designed to assess the mastery of the language and cultural concepts, rather than simple memorisation of rote material.It will also be crucial to collaborate with local communities to help ensure that the instructional materials and assessments are culturally appropriate and relevant.Our perspective is that teachers can work with elders and other community members to develop lesson plans and assessments that incorporate local, cultural knowledge and practices.Overall, improving teachers' self-efficacy and learners' assessment in indigenous languages requires a concerted effort to address the unique linguistic and cultural contexts of each community.By providing targeted support and advocating for language revitalisation efforts, we can help ensure that indigenous languages continue to thrive and all learners receive the education they deserve.